Today Was A Long Day

Today Was A Long Day Hi there. Today was an incredibly long day. Like running back and forth between lab, eating lunch in 5 mins, barely making it to the dining hall before it closed kind of a day. My alarm was set for 7:30 am this morning. I went to bed at around 1 am last night (or I guess this morning). So basically I averaged about six and a half hours of sleep. And for someone like me, who sometimes finds ten hours of sleep to not be suffice, lets just say that the day was spent in a weird state of being subconsciously conscious. I managed to carry myself out of bed at around 8:30 am, giving me exactly half an hour to look somewhat decent, chomp down a breakfast sandwich and run across campus to the Koch Institute. I stepped outside and realized that it was unexpectedly cold. In retrospect, I should have checked the weather app when I first woke up. I didnt have time to go back to my room to throw on something warmer. Im not entirely sure I processed everything that happened in lab today. And I definitely checked off only about half of my to-do list. At some point, I escaped to Barker Library to write some field notes for my Global Health Development class. I ended up falling asleep instead. 5.12 (Organic Chemistry) and 20.110 (Thermodynamics for Bimolecular Systems) were big blurs. My assorted set of Muji pens inspired me to keep going and take notes anyways. We had a microquiz in 6.0001 (Introduction to Python) that I didnt really have time to study for. The website we were taking the quiz on crashed about two minutes in. I didnt get back to my dorm till 7:55pm, giving me about 5 minutes to grab dinner before the hall closed. I ended up green boxing dinner and treating myself to a spoon of food after every pset question I solved. I told myself I would go to bed early today and yet, here I am. My roommate is asleep. The lights are turned off.  I still have emails that need to be sent out and plasmids that need to be analyzed. My laptop is at 2%. My phone is at 1%. Pretty sure my internal battery is at 0%. On my defeated march back to my dorm room, I run into a good friend of mine. I dont really need to say anything for her to know that I have, in fact, had a long day. I havent answered any of her phone calls or replied to any of her texts in the past 12 hours or so. In terms of communication, Ive practically fallen off of the face of the planet. You know what Afeefah, were going to go to my favorite place on campus. It always makes me feel better when I need a pick me up. We end up here: When Im stressed out, I have a tendency to hold my breathe in. Until either my list of things to do is completely checked off. Or someone reminds me to slow down and take deep breathes. So here I am, standing in the middle of Lobby 7. Looking around at the long pillars and intricate ceiling work I walk by everyday. A place that I worry Im becoming desensitized too. Because I often forget just how beautiful it is. And yet a place that on long days like this one, offers a wisp of fresh air. A place that is uniquely mesmerizing at night. A place that remind me that I can either treat my day as a long list of things to do or just that, a day.  A place where I can momentarily escape into a comforting sense of serenity. And now that my brain has oxygen flowing to it again I think I can keep pushing through for another hour or two. Heres to picking the right primers for Sanger Sequencing. Post Tagged #A Day In The Life Of #Just Keep Swimming #Lobby 7

`` Americanize Immigrants `` By Daniel E. Bender - 1216 Words

To establish ways to, subsequently, Americanize immigrants, according to Daniel E. Bender’s, Perils of Degeneration, Reform, the Savage Immigration, and the Survival of the Unfit, settlement houses and reform organizations demonstrated ways to Americanize new immigrants and encourage the elimination of the unfit. Established by the upper middle class, appropriately, settlement homes were placed in the immigrant neighborhoods. The environment that a person resided in determined the success or degeneration of new immigrants. Therefore, it seemed only appropriate that settlement houses and reform organizations â€Å"prevent the inheritance of degenerate traits† (Bender, 14). Fundamentally, degeneracy was viewed as a disease that could be cured.†¦show more content†¦Infants were equivalent to the earliest primates and childhood reflected savage and brutal life, however, also, a recreation of the experience of human evolution (Bender, 12). Children’s play was seen to be similar to savage rituals. The play movement taught that as children play they are revisiting each stage of human evolution and developing from primitive savages into civilized citizens (Bender, 18). In addition, children were then guided through a complete recapitulation of human racial history (Bender, 18). Settlement houses transformed the play aspect for children into work instinct. Street boy gangs within neighborhoods â€Å"exercised a powerful degenerative pull,† too (Bender, 12). These boys were undoubtedly savage. In order to end this degenerative power, settlement houses replaced the streets with civilization clubs and gymnasiums, in efforts civilize such primitive members. After learning the rules for games, received industrial training, and understood dramatic expressions gangs would then prosper into organized clubs (Bender, 15). Also, within these settlement homes, immigrants were taught about minstrel shows. The popularity of racially- themed plays in settlement houses reflected public enthusiasm as immigrants learned collective cooperation and individual creative leadership (Bender, 16). After administering IQ to soldiers, in order to mobilize for war, this proved that settlement houses and reform

Definition of Alkaline in Chemstry

Alkaline refers to an aqueous solution having a pH greater than 7 or a [OH-] greater than 10-7. An alkaline solution is also known as basic.

Planning a Scheme of Work Free Essays

Planning Scheme of Work – Literacy Level 2 The produced scheme of work is aimed at 16 to 18 year old learners who are enrolled on the â€Å"Entry to Employment† (â€Å"E2E†) programme. The programme is intended for unemployed young adults to assist them in improving their prospects of employment with training or of entering higher education. The programme is designed to include personal and social skills, vocational skills and Basic and Key Skills. We will write a custom essay sample on Planning a Scheme of Work or any similar topic only for you Order Now In this context, much learning is intended to embed Basic and Key Skills into other areas of learning and vice-versa Session Content Sessions are based on the Skills for Life Teacher Resource Pack issued by the DfES, which is produced to support National Standards for Adult Literacy. These resources are designed to be based on real life situations, aimed at adults and to cover the Adult Literacy Core Curriculum. Six modules have been used, one at level one and five at level two. I have divided each module over two sessions each lasting for two hours of classroom time. Opportunities to complete tasks beyond the scope of the session are available as all learners have free study periods, which are supported by tutors. Extension activities using spelling and grammar exercises have been included and would also be completed in free study time. I have decided on the sequence of topics based on Reece Walker (2003, p239) suggesting that easiest topics could be tackled first, so starting the programme with level 1 activities. I have also taken sessions directly relevant to E2E learners, i. e. job search, and used these for the first few sessions as I have observed this type of learner questioning the relevance of various activities they are asked to undertake on the wider E2E programme. Teaching and Learning Methods Sessions are started with a directed section, explaining objectives to the learners, using visual aids (interactive whiteboard and data projector) and or audio clips to demonstrate the learning point of the session and stimulate interest in the topic. This part of the session lasts about 10 to 15 minutes and is followed by an opportunity for learners to work on their own, in small groups or more usually in pairs, using printed or on-line resources, for around 40 to 50 minutes. During this time learners are supported by the tutor. After this a break is taken and the above process is repeated after break, focusing on the next part of the session, again starting with visual aids, usually in the form of a data projector. The final 10 minutes are used to re-iterate points made and check understanding through questioning. The scheme of work relies on the use of visual and audio stimuli in conjunction with individual learning as many learners on the E2E programme have had poor experiences of conventional classroom technique. A. T. Graham (1999, P. 26) Says: It is interesting to note the following figures for what we remember (learn? ) from our various senses: Sight 75% Hearing 13% Feeling 6% Smell 3% Taste 3% Feedback from learners of these methods is almost unanimously positive, especially towards the use of technology and visual aids. Assessment Methods At the end of each session, learners are encouraged to complete the module checklist and detail areas that they feel confident with or need more practice with. Each session incorporates tasks to be completed during the session and completion of the tasks is supported and observed by the tutor. This presents the opportunity to continually assess each student’s progress as well as assist any student encountering difficulty. Although not part of the scheme of work, students sit diagnostic assessments at the start of the programme and further diagnostics as well as practice tests later in the programme. Usually a second diagnostic at six weeks followed by mock tests at 10 and 12 weeks. Self Evaluation A self-evaluation form has been included for completion at the end of each session. The form examines the effectiveness of tutor and learner activities, resources and where relevant, achievement. The largest space is reserved for learner feedback as learners are asked for feedback after each session and asked to complete feedback forms on a regular basis. These, together with improvements in diagnostic and mock test scores form the basis of evaluation for this programme. Learning Theory Motivation A key element of the scheme is that it encourages independent learning. Within each structured session there are opportunities for the learners to work on their own or in pairs with support from a tutor. During this time learners are not simply given worksheets and expected to complete them, each learner has access to their own resources which they follow at their own pace and work through with discussion between groups of learners and the tutor. So, for example, during a session on newspaper articles, after a class discussion of two examples of newspaper articles students would be asked to find their own examples on the Internet, examine the differences between articles themselves and discuss their findings with the tutor one to one or in a small group. In this way learners take control of their own learning and experience the satisfaction of knowing that they are not simply filling in blanks. Learners on the E2E programme then have equal time in non-structured sessions to carry on with any unfinished work, carry out their own research and complete any extension activities. Geoffrey Petty (2001, P. 306) States that: There is a consensus amongst management theorists that giving employees control over how they work greatly increases their sense of responsibility, motivation and effectiveness. Unsurprisingly, giving students control over their own learning empowers them in the same way. Independence is not an arbitrary foundation for a teaching method: it resonates with a deep human need – the need for freedom; the need to be in control. This is a need felt most strongly by adolescents†¦ 16 to 18 year old learners, many of whom have achieved little or nothing at school respond well to being given control of their own learning. Resources The E2E programme benefits from being well resourced, especially with technology. This has an impact on the engagement of learners, most 16 to 18 year olds being unimpressed with anything less than cutting edge technology. Every learner has access to a broadband enabled, high specification computer on which to complete individual work, all resources are available across the network for printing and or editing by the learner, meaning that the learner is in control of his or her own version of the Skills for Life Resource Pack. So, for example, in lesson five, a resource page for searching the Internet would be projected to the whiteboard, we would be able to discuss the question â€Å"can you name any more search engines? † and the tutor would be able to note some examples on the screen for learners to see. Learners would then be able to look at their own version of this resource page, type in their answers and print off a hard copy for their file. They would then be able to access the Internet and continue with the activity. Equality of Opportunity As discussed, the scheme of work is based around the Skills for Life Teacher Resource Pack issued by the DfES, the introduction to which states that the materials are intended to be â€Å"broad-based† and â€Å"adult-appropriate†. Within the materials, names, voices and pictures of characters are ethnically diverse and represent both genders. It is however the job of the tutor to be sensitive to learners and I have replaced 2 articles on terror alerts in lesson nine after awkwardness during the session amongst Muslim students. Wheelchair access to the building and wireless laptop computers are available to students with disabilities. Two of the fixed computers in the classroom are configured for large fonts. Conclusion The Entry to Employment programme is aimed at a group of learners who have previously struggled in education and so challenge tutors to find new ways to engage them. Independent learning is encouraged by the Learning and Skills Council for E2E and more sources than that quoted support this method. The use of I. C. T. s also encouraged and this scheme of work relies heavily on it although a much less â€Å"high tech† version could be delivered if this was required. Although many learners are engaged by the technology, it cannot take the place of a tutor or teacher, merely add to the learning experience and a good understanding of the subject is impossible to replace. Bibliography A. T. Graham (1999) Planning for Teaching Learning, Resource Handbook Geoffrey Petty (2001) Teaching Today , Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd Reece Walker (2003) Teaching, Training and Learning ,Sunderland: Business Education Publishers Ltd. How to cite Planning a Scheme of Work, Essay examples

Helter Skelter by Vincent Bugliosi free essay sample

Reviews prosecutors account of life character of Charles Manson, the 1969 Tate-LaBianca murders, trial conviction. One of the most notorious instances of mass murder in the annals of American criminal justice took place August 9 and 10, 1969 when the so-called Manson family killed a total of six people in savage attacks. The killers left behind slogans scrawled on the walls in their victims blood. The leader of the group of killers was Charles Manson, who remains to this day a prisoner in San Quentin, subject to periodic review of his eligibility for parole, a parole that is vehemently opposed by the prosecution, the police, and a vast majority of citizens of California. While there are elements in the life story of Manson that might explain his behavior, his warped thinking remains intact, as he demonstrates whenever he gives interviews or comes before the parole board. His involvement with the criminal justice system demonstrates the difficulty in coping with those

360 Degree Appraisals Essays - Neuropsychology,

360 Degree Appraisals Ozo Akah Davenport University HRM700 Dr. Nicole Runyon February 8, 2014 360 Degree Appraisals The first and foremost way forward would be to gather the relevant information about the situation where the most important part is the relevance. The manager being responsible for the entire work allocation has to responsibly check for the authenticity and the relevance of the data gathered. As a supervisor that is strategically investigating a situation (case) the first step is to number out what you need to pay attention to and what you don't. That is relevance. For example, you are offered with a scenario that involves employees who are chronically late for work and the data you have mentions that it is snowing. Is the detail that it is snowfall applicable or not? It cannot be confirmed due to the lack of detail. In addition, this further point towards the fact that in many positions trying to work from only the details offered is not enough. The supervisor should be astute sufficient to identify when added information is required, and what type of data, in order to consider the relevance of a specific piece of facts and figures. At the identical time he or she should understand when to make the decision with the data at hand. Often this step is resolved with a SWOT investigation, which farther extrapolates the most important issues out of the general situation investigation. This assists to zero in on the root problem (Heathfield, (n.d)). In the next step we determine the root cause of the problem where identification of the relevant problem is the main issue. This step is not a long drawn out explanation. You should be adept to state the difficulty in a sentence. It may then be essential, and in the comprehensive case or more convoluted positions a granted, to a complicated one with recognizing the actual problem which is the prime focus here. Next we look at the different parts of the problem where it is absolutely essential to find out the main components and then sort them out by making a list of points and ranking the aspects according to the needs. This is the most important step where one has to think out of the box and solve problems that are crucial. It is here that a kind of alternate courses of activity are identified and articulated. All of these are of course related to explaining the difficulty. This step is where you list the schemes you might chase. This is where you put your creative forces to work. In this part of the method, you should enlist in brainstorming. Remember that in brainstorming you easily generate concepts - save the evaluation of those concepts for later. That isn't to say in critical strategic case analysis you desire to include every concept you came up with in the report. In real world strategic planning I have seen reports that refer to the process and that it developed a number o f ideas that upon initial screening were very resolute as not reasonable or viable (Bradley at al, 2006). What you are doing here is not a full analysis of everything. When the case analysis report is written up it often appears as if these two steps have taken place simultaneously. That is not, or should not, be the case. Once you have narrowed the list you should take the information you gathered and analyzed in the first step and apply it to these alternatives. You should articulate what the most probable outcome will be based on the information you have collected, your experience, education, and expertise. When it is written up it is important to support your stated probable outcome. The next step is also important where it has to be kept in mind that the readers are going to assume things because the readers are always counting on you to make them understand the context in detail (Jackson, 2011). Thus it cannot be assumed that the readers will always understand and hence the content needs to be made clear for the readers to have complete comprehension of the same. Further it is also important to have the big picture in mind so that the readers

The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The WritePass Journal

The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Introduction The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Introduction1.Definition of a Wetland1.1 Function and Value of Wetlands2. THREATS TO URBAN WETLAND2.1 Physical Destruction2.2   Water Pollution2.3   Exploitation3.   WATER QUALITY4.   THE uMNGENI ESTUARY 4.1   Description of the uMngeni Estuary4.2   Threats to the uMngeni Estuary4.3   Reasons for Restoration5.   POSSIBLE RESTORATION PROCEDURES5.1   Considerations when Attempting Restoration5.2   Possible Mitigation Measures to Aid Restoration6.   BIO-MONITORING AND RESTORATION6.1   Types of Monitoring Methods6.2   Monitoring Restoration 7.   BIO-MONITORING7.1 Programmes Implementing Bio-monitoring7.2   South African Scoring System7.3   Habitat Assessments Aiding Bio-monitoring8.   BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES8.1   Characteristics That Aid in Bio-Assessments9.   THE USE OF BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES IN BIO-MONITORING  9.1   Sensitivity of Benthic Macro-invertebrates to Environmental Stress9.2   Advantages of Using Benthic Macro-invertebrates in Bio-monitoring9.3 Disadvantages of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-monitoring10.   Role Benthic Macro-invertebrates Will Play in Monitoring and Conserving uMngeni Estuary10.1   Characteristics of the Benthic Macro-invertebrate Population that Indicates the Health Status of the Estuary10.2    How Feeding Groups Are Linked To the Composition of the Estuary10.3. The Distribution of the Various Types of Benthic Macro-Invertebrates Along the uMngeni River Into the Estuary10.4.   The Effectiveness of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-Monitoring11. AREAS OF CONCENTRATION  CONCLUSION  REFERENCES  Related Introduction 1.Definition of a Wetland The National Water Act defines a wetland as land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The water table in a wetland is usually very close to the surface; therefore the land is, at times, covered with shallow water supporting thousands of species, typically adapted to life in saturated soil (Agius, 2010). Wetlands in KwaZulu-Natal vary greatly according to topographic, hydrological and climatic influences. Wetlands can be referred to as swamps, marshes, estuaries, bogs, floodplains, vleis and pans. The internationally accepted definition of a wetland includes â€Å"areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters,† (Dugan, 1993). There are three unique characteristics that indicate whether an environment is a wetland or not. Firstly there must be a high water table, which acts as a hydrological indicator. Secondly hydric soils must be present, which acts as a pedological indicator. Finally hydrophytic vegetation must grow in the environment, which acts as a botanical indicator (James, 1979). 1.1 Function and Value of Wetlands Wetlands have many functions and values man increasingly depend upon, due to their exponential population growth. Wetlands have hydrological functions, such as flood attenuation where they form natural floodways, aiding in the transportation of flood waters. Wetlands store water during floods, which is slowly released to downstream areas. Wetlands recharge and discharge ground water and can dissipate erosive forces. Wetlands improve the quality of water by aiding in the removal of excess nutrients, chemical contaminants, sediments and numerous toxic substances (such as heavy metals and pesticides). Wetlands also provide a habitat for a broad variety of plants and animals. In Natal 144 wildlife species are dependent on wetlands for their life requirements. Many of the animal species listed as endangered in South Africa are associated to wetlands. Wetlands have high tidal and inland productivity, which provide nutrients and are food sources to many species. Lastly wetlands have various socio-economic functions which include providing recreational sites for fishing or hunting and they provide educational opportunities for observing and studying nature (Rosenburg, 1993). 2. THREATS TO URBAN WETLAND The value of wetlands was not realised up until very recently. Prior to this they were not protected by law and therefore were frequently degraded and even destroyed by an increasing and continuous urbanisation and industrialisation of our planet. This damage continues to occur however due to the disregard for the legislation protecting these areas and the ignorance of the possible outcomes of the loss of these wetlands. 2.1 Physical Destruction There are numerous threats to the sustainability of the wetlands existing today. An ever increasing global population and the resulting outcomes of this is the major hazard for the protraction of these precious regions. It leads to the growth of residential and commercial development which may occur near or over wetlands eventually leading to their destruction from activities such as levelling, dredging, draining, filling, removal of vegetation and restriction of flow in order to create additional land to be used for the purposes of construction (Hendricks, 2004). 2.2   Water Pollution Human interference in or around wetlands brings about other activities which impact negatively on the wetlands and the ecology within. Pollution from dumping, littering, runoff and untreated stormwater and sewage diversion into a wetland, as well as from public recreational activities, alters the hydrology of the wetland and diminish the water quality. This results in groundwater contamination, poor soil conditions to facilitate vegetation growth, flora and fauna extermination as well as disruption of flow patterns (Agius, 2010 ). 2.3   Exploitation Urbanisation also leads to the exploitation of the resources that wetlands offer. Water is pumped out of the wetland for various purposes such as for potable water and irrigation. These areas are also abundant in minerals and peat which are extracted as well as fish which are harvested excessively. If left unmanaged the sustainability of these wetlands may be at risk. Chemical contamination due to pest control is a secondary effect from these activities which reduces the conditions in which living organisms in the wetland can continue to exist (NSW Department of Natural (Resources, 2008), (MRSC, 2001). 3.   WATER QUALITY Biological communities, such as communities of benthic macroinvertebrates, can change due to habitat degradation, water quality degradation or both. Ecosystems in both rivers and estuaries are affected by water quality variables. These variables could be physical, which include turbidity, temperature and suspensoids; or chemical, which includes toxic and non-toxic variables. Toxic variables being: traces of metal and biocides, and non-toxic variables being: pH, conductivity, nutrients, organic enrichment and dissolved oxygen. The quality of water can also be affected by the composition of the uMgeni estuary itself. The factors affecting water quality are namely, topography, geology, climate, land use and the type of soil found in the estuary (Eggers, 2007). 4.   THE uMNGENI ESTUARY An estuary, by definition, is a type of wetland located at the crossing point between two environments, viz. marine and fresh water environment, and is the most dynamic and productive ecosystem in the world (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). Figure 1. Aerial photograph of uMngeni River leading to uMngeni Estuary and out into the Indian ocean (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010)    Figure 2. Photograph of uMngeni Estuary (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010) 4.1   Description of the uMngeni Estuary The uMngeni Estuary supported by the uMngeni River, which carries water from the Inanda Dam, flows into the Indian Ocean at Durban as depicted in Figure 1 (The River Health Programme, 2002). The uMngeni Estuary is a 230 ha, structurally modified, permanently open estuary which can be viewed in Figure 2. One of uMngeni Estuary’s most eye catching features is its Beachwood Mangrove, located on the northern bank – the fifth largest mangrove in South Africa (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). The uMngeni Estuary is of both ecological and recreational importance – providing marine animals with a habitat as well as allowing for human sporting activities such as angling (South African River Health Programme, 2004). The mouth of this estuary, being permanently open, gives rise to a high salinity gradient, which brings about a diverse fish population. It houses 24 taxa of benthic macro-invertebrates, with polychaete Capitella capitata being the most prominent – a type of indicator species which detects organic pollution. There is also an abundance of birds at the estuary (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). 4.2   Threats to the uMngeni Estuary The uMngeni Estuary, like many other natural water sites, are susceptible to threats. Currently, the state of this estuary is classified as â€Å"highly degraded† by the eThekwini Municipality. uMngeni Estuary is situated in the eThekwini Municipal Area, an area home to a third of KwaZulu-Natal’s population; however, this population occupies only 1% of the province’s land area, creating a population over load and the need for urban expansion. Expansions along the coastal regions disrupt the estuarine environment causing degradation (Ethekwini Municipality, 2010). Other more serious threats include: canalisation of the uMngeni River, this results in the removal of habitats in the estuary region; the Inanda Dam regulating the flow of water, thus preventing the natural supply of sand entering to the river resulting in silting and the closing of the estuary; eutrophication as a result of nutrient additions; chemical and organic pollutants; invasive alien plant specie s and direct resource exploitation due to sand mining and over fishing (South African River Health Programme, 2004). 4.3   Reasons for Restoration It is of importance that the uMngeni Estuary be restored to good condition for it is viewed as a biodiversity asset, providing key ecosystem services such as nursery area for fisheries, flood abatement, biodiversity refuge protection and recreation. Being located adjacent to Moses Mabhida Stadium and at the northern end of Durban’s beachfront, it is a zone of recreational activities as well as a tourist â€Å"hot spot† and it is therefore crucial that the condition of the estuary be enhanced to promote tourism and economic growth in South Africa. In addition, a good quality estuary would offer the local community, as well as visitors, the opportunity to engage in nature based activities in an urban landscape (ECO Systems, 2010). 5.   POSSIBLE RESTORATION PROCEDURES A damaged or degraded wetland is by no means useless or irreparable. In fact in many countries throughout the world damaged wetlands have successfully been restored such as the Tidal Wetlands at East Trinity, Cairns, Australia (Agius, 2010). After decades of being subjected to noxious sulphuric acid runoff, scientists were able to reverse the effects by gradually allowing sea water into the wetland using existing floodgates. 5.1   Considerations when Attempting Restoration According to the Parks and Recreation Board for the City of New York, the key points to focus on when attempting the restoration of any wetland are the re-establishment of appropriate hydrological systems, soils and indigenous vegetation (Parks and Recreation, 2010). This can be achieved by a number of acts to undo the negative effects that were previously impacting upon the wetland. These acts include fill removal, fresh soil placement, invasive plant eradication and indigenous plant restoration, erosion control, stormwater, runoff and pollution management (Parks and Recreation, 2010). 5.2   Possible Mitigation Measures to Aid Restoration Fill removal and soil replacement aims at land alterations that will assist in reforming previous ecologic conditions that existed within the wetland. The eradication or control of alien plants and the restoration of indigenous plants also assist with this revitalization. Stormwater, runoff and pollution can be eliminated and managed however long term pollution elimination can only be achieved through the efforts of the surrounding residents and industrialists. These people should understand the value of a wetland and therefore why conservation is crucial in order for them to behave in manner that does not result in further pollution (Casagrande, 1997). During the restoration process it would be extremely beneficial to utilise indicators so as to monitor the quality of the water and thus the condition of the wetland as a whole. In this way the progress or lack thereof can be noted and this may give an idea of the way in which to proceed with the restoration process. 6.   BIO-MONITORING AND RESTORATION Human activities are continuing to increase yearly and this is placing pressure on wetlands. Many wetlands have already been destroyed due to urban and agricultural development. The remaining wetlands need to be monitored so that they remain functional. Efficient and accurate techniques are essential for the assessment of a wetland. There are four major factors in wetland degradation namely: altered water regime, habitat modification, pollutants and exotic species. Monitoring may be defined as the collection and analysis of environmental data (Biological, chemical, and/or physical) over a sufficient period of time and frequency to determine the status or trend in one or more environmental parameters or characteristics toward meeting a management objective (Cale. 2004). Wetlands are sensitive and need to be constantly monitored to remain balanced. Monitoring wetlands provides information on the Biotic Integrity which is defined as â€Å"the ability to support and maintain a balanced, integrated, adaptive community of organisms having a species composition, diversity and functional organization comparable to that of natural habitat of the region.† (Garner 2002). 6.1   Types of Monitoring Methods Digital change detection is used to spot visual changes over a landscape. Aerial photos are captured via satellite or aircraft. Images taken at different times are observed and changes in vegetation are noted any suspicious findings prompt further investigations. Chemical and physical monitoring gives useful insight into the state of the water with the wetland.   Samples of water are gathered and properties such as water depth, dissolved oxygen content, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ph levels, temperature and turbidity are determined and analysed to establish the status of the wetland. Toxicity tests are carried out in laboratories whereby a sample is taken from the wetland then screened and compared to that of controlled water to check for toxicity. Chemical monitoring provides information on toxic compounds but cannot provide early warnings (Michael 2010). Biological Monitoring uses the responses of living organisms to determine the state of a wetland. Living organisms such as Algae, benthic macro invertebrates, vertebrates, phytoplankton etc are used as indicators of the wetland’s status these organisms are sensitive to change. Changes in their reproduction, growth, behavior etc are observed which gives insight with regards to what’s happening in that environment.   Samples of these living organisms are taken and analyzed. Early warning systems can be developed whereby organisms from site are kept in a special on site laboratory and receive flow from the actual site, these organisms are monitored over time to note any behavioral and physical changes induced by anthropogenic stress. Early detection is key to restoring a balanced environment (NAVFAC, 2004). 6.2   Monitoring Restoration Monitoring methods are not only useful for early detection they also aid in monitoring restoration processes. During restoration monitoring techniques can be used to collect data on soil, nutrient levels, plant and animal growth etc ,this data would indicate whether or not the restoration is successful. The restoration process must be under constant monitoring to ensure success. 7.   BIO-MONITORING Bio-monitoring, by definition, is a technique used to check the health of an aquatic ecosystem by using the density and relative abundance of resident organisms as an indicator (Day, J., 2000). According to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), the â€Å"ideal’ indicator should have the following characteristics: The indicator should be a taxonomically sound and be identifiable with ease The indicator should have a wide spread population distribution The indicator should be numerically abundant The body size of the indicator should be large The ecological requirements of the indicator should be known Indicator should be suitable for the use in laboratory studies 7.1 Programmes Implementing Bio-monitoring To increase the awareness and knowledge on the state of aquatic ecosystems across South Africa, The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) developed a programme, known as the National Aquatic Ecosystem Bio-monitoring Programme (NAEBP), for monitoring the health of aquatic ecosystems. This programme was later renamed the River Health Programme (RHP), which focused on the implementation and maintenance of bio-monitoring across South Africa. The RHP use invertebrates as one of the many organisms used for bio-monitoring (WRC, 2002). 7.2   South African Scoring System Scoring Systems are used to allocate scores to different biotic groups, based on the organism’s sensitivity to pollution and environmental stress. For example, stoneflies and mayflies have high scores based on their abundance and presence. The South African Scoring System, better known as the SASS4, is based on macro-invertebrates, where taxa are assigned sensitivity scores according to their responsiveness to changes in the water quality. All biotopes are sampled to obtain an accurate reflection of the communities of macro-invertebrates and their corresponding sensitivities to deteriorating water quality. The sensitivity scores for all the communities are summed to give the sample score. The Average Score per Taxon (ASPT) is found by dividing the sample score with the number of communities found (Graham, M., 1998). 7.3   Habitat Assessments Aiding Bio-monitoring For bio-monitoring to reflect the true condition of the river and estuary, a habitat assessment must be performed. An assessment of the habitat integrity must be performed before the assessment of the biotic integrity. A habitat assessment will aid the bio-monitoring in numerous ways, including finding appropriate sampling sites, provides basic information that will help interpret the bio-monitoring results and will help identify constraints on the potential of a site. The SASS4 recognizes 3 habitat assessment guides which could be used, namely, the Habitat Assessment Matrix (HAM) which looks at the impact of physical habitat degradation using a SASS score, the habitat assessment (HABS1) in which habitats are assessed based on biotopes used for sampling and Habitat Quality Index (HQI) which is very similar to the HAM (WRC, 2002). 8.   BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES Benthic macro invertebrates (benthic = bottom, macro = large and invertebrates = animal without backbones) are animals without backbones that are larger than  ½ millimetre – a photograph of benthic macro-invertebrates can be viewed in Figure 3 below. These animals live in sediment, debris plants etc for at least part of their life. Benthic macro invertebrates include crustaceans such as crayfish, such as clams and snails, aquatic worms and the immature forms of aquatic insects such as stonefly and mayfly nymphs (DNR 2004). Figure 3. Photograph of Benthic Macro-invertebrates Benthic macro invertebrates are widespread and can live on all bottom types. They are found in wetlands, lakes ponds etc. most benthic species can be found the whole year round but numbers intensify during spring just before the reproductive season.   Benthic macro invertebrates easily move around with the currents or by flying. Many species undergo metamorphosis then reproduce. Most of their lives are spent in water (Rosenburg,1993). These organisms are an invaluable tool with regards to wetland monitoring and bio-assessments in general. When placed in harmful environments these organisms display â€Å"tell tale† responses, these responses help conservationists identify problems in the wetland. 8.1   Characteristics That Aid in Bio-Assessments Benthic macro invertebrates have characteristic that aid in bio-assessments. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   They are well dispersed and occur in most wetlands. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Show different reactions to different types of pollution and other adverse effects. à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   High life spans à ¼Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sampling of Benthic macro invertebrates is simple , does not require heavy equipment The observation of benthic macro invertebrates provides important information that will prolong wetland health and increase sustainability. Their behaviour and availability aids conservationists to develop early warning signs and save wetlands. 9.   THE USE OF BENTHIC MACRO-INVERTEBRATES IN BIO-MONITORING   Benthic macro-invertebrates possess all the ideal characteristics of a bio-monitoring indicator, as listed above by Rosenberg and Resh (1993). Benthic macro-invertebrates have been documented as one of the most valuable tools for bio-monitoring aquatic ecosystems and are widely chosen to evaluate the quality of surface waters. The types of bio-monitoring using benthic macro-invertebrates include surveillance and to ensure compliance (Richard, 2010).Surveillance surveys could be taken before and after the environmental impact or could also be taken to see whether water resource management techniques are effective or not. Benthic macro-invertebrates could be used to ensure immediate environmental requirements are met or used to control and monitor long term water quality (Townsend 1980). 9.1   Sensitivity of Benthic Macro-invertebrates to Environmental Stress According to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), benthic macro-invertebrate display certain reactions, that are both biochemical and physiological, when confronted by an adverse environment. Exposure to impacted environments could even lead to deformities. Jeffrey and Madden (1991) found that other macro invertebrates have also had negative side effects, such as a decrease in the case building ability of the Agapetus fuscipes, a decline in the feeding rate of the amphipod Gammarus pulex and a change in the reproductive behaviour of the midge Chironomus riparius. Salanki (1986) noted that the populations of the macro invertebrates tend to drift down stream of the water body when faced with chemo-physical changes.   Therefore the most common indicators of environmental stress in macro invertebrates are the changes in their growth, survival, population distributions and reproduction. 9.2   Advantages of Using Benthic Macro-invertebrates in Bio-monitoring In this literature review benthic macro-invertebrates have been chosen as the biological indicator in the uMngeni Estuary, over other forms on macro invertebrates for numerous reasons. They occur and can survive in almost all types of habitats. There are various taxa of benthic macro-invertebrates that range in sensitivity to all kinds of environmental stresses and pollutants. Benthic macro-invertebrates are sedentary by nature, making it easier for them to pick up on approaching pollutants. Their life cycles are long enough to detect exposure to pollution and environmental stress, and the population will not recuperate so quickly that the harm will go undetected. Sampling the Benthic macro-invertebrates is a simple procedure and does not require complicated devices on site (WRC 2002). 9.3 Disadvantages of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-monitoring However, according to Rosenberg and Resh (1993), there are disadvantages to using benthic macro-invertebrates in bio-monitoring. There are certain environmental impacts that do not affect benthic macro-invertebrates. Water quality is not the only factor that effects their population distribution and abundance, the natural conditions of the habitat in which they live also plays an important role. Their population abundance and distribution varies across the seasonal changes, which can cause sampling problems.   Fortunately, the problems discussed can be overcome with proper knowledge of the habitat predilections, life history and drift patterns. 10.   Role Benthic Macro-invertebrates Will Play in Monitoring and Conserving uMngeni Estuary 10.1   Characteristics of the Benthic Macro-invertebrate Population that Indicates the Health Status of the Estuary The surveillance of benthic macro-invertebrate communities, focusing on taxonomic composition and richness, is the most sensitive tool for effectively detecting changes in aquatic ecosystems, like the uMngeni Estuary. Therefore it is more beneficial to analyse the entire population of invertebrates as a whole rather than looking at individual taxa. Population characteristics, that could be used to detect environmental changes, include richness, diversity and interactions as a functional community. Community functions include productivity processes, decomposition and fluxes in nutrients and energy (Williams, 1990) 10.2    How Feeding Groups Are Linked To the Composition of the Estuary The analysis of the size and characteristics of various feeding groups of benthic macro-invertebrates can be linked to certain aquatic conditions and can give insight into the nature and composition of the estuary. According to Townsend (1980), these macro-invertebrates can be categorized into 4 major feeding groups, namely, grazers which feed of algae, shredders which feed of large particles of plant matter, collectors which feed on fine particles on the stream bed or filtering through the water and predators which feed on invertebrates, fish and other aquatic animals. Therefore if an unnatural increase in the number of grazers were found during the bio-monitoring, it could be concluded that there is an abnormal growth of algae in the estuary that could be due to an environmental stress or pollutant. 10.3. The Distribution of the Various Types of Benthic Macro-Invertebrates Along the uMngeni River Into the Estuary The benthic macro-invertebrate population distribution in terms of the various feeding groups, with regards to the uMngeni River supplying the uMngeni Estuary, will be as follows. The upper part of the river will have course particulate organic matter. Here large population groups of shredders and predators can be found. In the middle reaches of the river, finer material can be found supporting collectors and grazers. In the lower reaches of the river and estuary the material found will be very fine and tend to settle as the current slows down. Here predominantly grazers can be. However the population distribution down the river into the estuary can be influenced by many abiotic factors, such as oxygen, current, substratum, concentration of dissolved chemicals and temperature. All these factors must be taken into consideration during the testing phase. 10.4.   The Effectiveness of Using Benthic Macro-Invertebrates in Bio-Monitoring Using benthic macro-invertebrates in bio-monitoring is one of the most effective ways to indicate an environmental impact. For example if toxins are flowing through the water of the river, a chemical investigation would not reflect the exact impacts as the toxins would be quickly washed downstream and out of the estuary. However there would be radical changes to the benthic macro-invertebrate populations for quite some time, even after the toxins have gone (Graham 1998). An investigation determined by Muirhead-Thomson (1987), showed that a community of benthic macro-invertebrates took 2 to 3 week to recover from the application of the insecticide, methoxychlor. This would give researchers ample time to find the exact impacts of a pollutant or environmental stress if implemented along the uMngeni River and into the estuary. 11. AREAS OF CONCENTRATION Different species of invertebrates can be located at specific areas throughout the estuary as discussed in the previous section. It is therefore important to know which region of the wetland would be of particular significance in achieving the goal of restoration. The overall state of the water quality of the uMngeni Estuary is especially dependant on the condition of the freshwater being provided by the uMngeni River. It would thus be prudent to pay attention to the benthic macro-invertebrates that exist at the point where river and estuary meet and even further up along the river as well. In this way it may determined if considerable degradation is occurring before the water even enters the wetland. By monitoring and enhancing the condition of water in the river the quality of the water in the estuary can be enhanced (South African River Health Programme, 2004). Ultimately a large number of concentration areas should be chosen so as to obtain a general idea of the state of the estu ary and whether conditions are improving or declining.   CONCLUSION The uMngeni Estuary is an invaluable ecosystem in the Durban area that if left unprotected will be destroyed by pollution and exploitation. It is essential that efforts be made to restore this environmental treasure to a naturally functioning wetland devoid of human impaction. In correlation with the restoration procedure the utilisation of a bio-monitoring process is extremely useful in determining wether conditions in the wetland are improving. 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